Exploring the Relationship Between Mother and Baby Essay Example for Free

Exploring the Relationship Between Mother and Baby Essay Exploring the relationship between mother and baby in the NICU in relation to nursing support. Abstract Aim -To explore the effect of interaction related to care-giving and information exchange between nurses and mothers in relation to maternal stress and maternal-infant relationship in the newborn intensive care unit (NICU) throughout the hospital stay. Background Mothers in the NICU experience depression, anxiety, stress, and loss of control, and they fluctuate between feelings of inclusion and exclusion related to the provision of health care to their neonate. This literature review helps to identify nursing interventions that promote positive outcomes between mother and baby by reducing maternal feelings of stress and anxiety. Search Method A literature search covering the period 2008-2012 was conducted. Five articles reporting both quantitative and qualitative studies relative to the subject were retrieved. Findings Findings reveal that positive and trustful relationships between nurses and mothers develop when nurses communicate and interact with mothers. This alleviated mother’s anxiety and enhanced their confidence when interacting with their baby. Discussion Critical analysis as well as strengths and weaknesses of the relative journals reviewed is given together with useful recommendations that emerge from the evidence. Conclusion The literature reviewed shows that nurse-mother interaction improves mother-infant relationship. In turn, this will eventually assist in decreasing maternal stress and improve the maternal well-being. INTRODUCTION Mothers develop attachment to their baby during pregnancy, which continues and develops more fully after the child is born (Cleveland 2009). However, the pathway to becoming a mother is threatened with the admission of the baby to the NICU. This occurs due to the unfamiliar and intimidating environment of the NICU (Obeidat et al 2009). During the initial admission parents can believe that the healthcare team is more able to care for their baby and this can instill feelings of inadequacy (Cockfort 2011). As a result, maternal attachment may be delayed by the lack of socialisation between mother and baby as most of the care is done by nurses (Cleveland 2009). DeRouck and Leys (2009), found that the parents of an infant admitted to the NICU face challenges including access to information, disclosure about the diagnosis, treatment and prognosis of their newborn, as well as a lack of control over the care of their newborn. Adding to this distress is the uncertainty of survival or the eventual impact of the infant’s condition on later health and well-being. In addition, feeling guilty to mother an unhealthy infant creates fear of social prejudice. Further, the structure of the NICU places significant barriers on mothers’ abilities to enact the parental role since decision-making and the daily care of the infant is taken over by medical and nursing staff restricting interactions with the babies stripping off their maternal authority (Cleveland 2009). In fact, when babies are in the NICU, traditional conceptualizations of the parental role are altered. The situation demands heightened parental participation while simultaneously placing severe restrictions on parental involvement. In response, parents need to negotiate this tension and traditional definitions of the parental role, which must be continually redefined throughout their experience What emerges is that the predominant source of distress is inability of the mother to protect the infant from pain and provide appropriate pain management. (Fenwick et al 2008). A lot of procedures cause pain in the neonate creating concerns for the mother, starting from peripheral cannulas, indwelling catheters and intubation to mention a few. In intubated babies, even though morphine infusions are administered, the baby still shows signs of distress during nursing times. In this case, we administer a small bolus of pain relief prior to nursing so that the baby would be more comfortable. Conversely, Fenwick et al (2008) describes factors that contribute to parents’ satisfaction in the NICU. These include; assurance and psychological support, the provision of consistent information, education, environmental follow-up care, appropriate pain management, and parental participation and proximity, as well as physical and spiritual support. Therefore, it is imperative that nurses should do their best to improve the mothers’ sense of confidence, competence and connection with her infant through guided participation (Domanico et al 2011). Johnson (2008) notes that skin-to-skin holding or kangaroo care promotes maternal-infant feelings of closeness, builds maternal confidence, and may be a stress-reducing experience for both the mother and infant. Hence the importance of providing the opportunity for kangaroo care to occur. Hunt (2008), notes that KMC is also crucial to stabilize parameters, such as cardio-respiratory parameters whilst being beneficial for maintaining body temperature. They add that even the incidence of nosocomial sepsis and the duration of hospital stay decreased with practicing KMC. In addition, Ali et al., (2009), found that Kangaroo mother care also showed positive outcomes towards practicing exclusive breastfeeding. Cockfort (2011) notes that, continuity of care needs to be ensured hence the importance of documentation. Therefore, it is suggested that handover should not be rushed, whilst a more comprehensive handover can ensure the smooth transition of care for staff and the family. When parents ask questions relating to their baby they feel assured in the competency of staff when information has been passed on correctly. When information is not shared effectively parents can lose trust and the partnership breaks down. In Malta, even though handover of 2 consecutive days is given, conflicting advice is still given at times due to the nurses’ different view-points. Consequently, this requires ward meetings in order to clarify important issues so that advice given and practice is consistent. In Malta, about 373 babies are admitted yearly (Grech et al 2012). In view of the benefits discussed, nurses should do their utmost to improve the overall experience of the mothers of such babies. Search Method A review of published research consisted of the following steps; broad reading to determine areas of focus, identification of inclusion and exclusion criteria, literature search (appendix 1) and retrieval, critical appraisal and analysis of the research evidence and synthesis of evidence. Evidence was reviewed with the aims of identifying barriers that affect the motherinfant interaction within the neonatal intensive care unit and how nurses can actively support attachment. Articles were included if the setting was primarily in a neonatal intensive care unit (neonatal unit or neonatal intensive care unit) and the participants were mothers of infants admitted to neonatal intensive care units or nurses working within that setting. In addition, All articles were critically analyzed with two primary questions in mind: (a) What are the needs of parents in the NICU? (b) What nursing behaviors support parents in meeting these needs? Articles were also included if they were primary research studies published between 2008 and 2012 and written in the English language. Primary and secondary literature searches were conducted through the EBSCO, ERIC, Sciencedirect and Medline databases. The primary search terms included â€Å"NICU,† â€Å"Neonatal Intensive Care Unit,† â€Å"family support,† â€Å"communication,† â€Å"nurse† and â€Å"early intervention.† The secondary literature search terms included â€Å"nursing support,† â€Å"efficacy,† â€Å"family,† â€Å"communication,† â€Å"support†, â€Å"neonatal† and â€Å"Kangaroo Mother Care†. These terms were used and utilised in all possible combinations to perform an extensive literature search of the above mentioned electronic databases. Thirdly, a review of references was conducted of the identified articles for any further studies. Eighteen articles were found through the search. Six studies met the inclusion criteria of which, 3 were qualitative and 3 quantitative (appendix 2). The subject was limited to the last 5 years. This time frame helps in the getting the most recent experiences since NICU is a changing environment especially as regards to technology which effects the mothers as well as the nurses. Both quantitative and qualitative studies were found. Both qualitative and quantitative research was conducted to identify what is known about the needs of NICU parents and what behaviours support these parents. Both methods of research were included because of the potential for each to contribute to a more complete understanding of this topic. In selecting a research design, researchers should be guided by one overarching consideration: whether the design does the best possible job of providing trustworthy answers to the research questions. One needs to note that both studies have limitations (Cottrell McKenzie, 2011). In quantitative research, the researcher’s aim is to determine the relationship between one variable (an independent variable) and another (a dependent or outcome variable) in a population (Morrow 2009). In contrast to quantitative designs, qualitative designs do not result in numerical data for statistical analysis (Schira, 2009). In qualitative methods, researchers are interested in interpreting social phenomena and exploring the meanings that people attach to their experiences (Polit and Beck 2010). Moreover, views, attitudes and behaviours may be explored (Wood Kerr, 2011), through grounded theory as it develops theories that are grounded in the groups observable experiences, but researchers add their own insight into why those experiences exist. Findings Table 1 includes information about the 5 studies that met the inclusion criteria . Once an infant is admitted into an NICU, many factors account for parental stress. Admission of the infant to the NICU places mothers in a stressful situation where they must cope with the NICU environment and its associated demands. In the study conducted by Parker (2011), a grounded theory approach was used to understand feeling and stressors of 11 mothers whose new-borns were in the NICU. It was found that the early days shock and numbness accompanied feelings of none or little control over their lives. Moreover, all mothers described feeling unprepared for the premature delivery and the sight of their baby in the NICU. Comparative results were found by Lee et al (2009), with regards to the shock experienced with the initial sight of the baby. Everyday unpredictable changes occur leaving no time for adjustment or preparation. Constant fears about the life and death of the baby do not subside and several mothers spoke about their experience of always anticipating the death of the baby. These findings are also reflected in my clinical setting when mothers would be recounting their experience once the baby’s condition improves. This is in line with the findings of Fenwick et al (2009) and Lee et al (2009). In addition, the findings imply that the positive reassurance of the effects of a positive and caring environment and support network between parents and nurses in the NICU is not always evident among every unit. Nicholas-Sargent (2009) found that assurance is the most important aspect to be fulfilled. Her quantitative study of 46 mothers found that the length of stay in the NICU and mothers’ information needs were found to be significantly inversely correlated. Therefore, this suggests that the longer an infant remains hospitalized in the NICU, the less emphasis the mother places on receiving information about the infant’s condition. This shows that the needs of the mothers in the NICU can change over time. My observations match these findings since mothers familiarise themselves and adapt to the situation. Moreover, they would eventually want to be successful with the care of the baby. This is reflected in the grounded theory analysis conducted by Fenwick et al (2008), using semi-structured interviews. They found that the nurse-mother relationship had the potential to significantly affect how women perceived their connection to the infant and their confidence in caring for their infant which occurred through a three way interaction. Being successful in their desire to care for the baby, engendered feelings associated with being a ‘‘real’’ mother. However, not all women in this study were able to successfully employ these strategies. In the situation where the mother perceived herself as ‘‘quiet and unassertive’’, and in a position without any power, it was very difficult to gain the confidence needed in order to be able to openly question, negotiate and direct the care of her infant. Therefore, it is very important to identify these mothers in order to help them by giving them continuous reassurance. This would particularly be required when the situation changes from support needing to encouragement in participation. Lee et al (2009) found that mothers received support from the healthcare professionals and the social networks that mothers made. These helped to create the connections that developed between the mothers and infants making their journey towards parenthood possible. They discovered that challenges are further compounded in Taiwan, where women are traditionally required to practice the cultural ritual which includes confinement to the house with a special balanced diet for the first month postnatal. Lee et al (2009) used the grounded theory approach with in-depth interviews and constant comparison. All interviews were audio-taped and notes were made during and immediately after the interview concerning actions and body language of the mother during the interview. The finding of this study further indicated that the initial sight of the life-support equipment was shocking. The technological environment created a fearful atmosphere, and the medical equipment attached to their infants caused the mothers further physical separation. The mothers indicated that they were so afraid of the equipment that it took them a long time to be able to participate in their infants’ care. In turn, this hampered them from establishing positive mother–infant interactions. Chiu and Anderson (2008), found that preterm births often negatively influence mother–infant interaction due to lack of physical contact. In addition, they found that skin-to skin contact post-birth has positive effects on infant development. These researchers conducted a randomized controlled trial (RCT) using questionnaires for data collection. In addition, mothers were further video-taped during a feeding session. Ali et al., (2009),highlight the importance of kangaroo care in their RCT where the researchers conducted their study with one hundred and fourteen infants. This study showed that the infants exposed to kangaroo mother care had an increase in rectal temperature compared to conventional care, therefore having a decreased risk of hypothermia. The mean temperature during kangaroo mother care was of 37 degrees Celsius while the mean temperature during conventional care was of 36.7 degrees Celsius. The data collected was through posted questionnaires. Discussion In the 3 qualitative studies found, the data was collected through interviews of which 2 were semi-structured while 1 was unstructured. Parker (2011), Fenwick et al (2008) and Lee et al (2008), used the Grounded theory approach. However, while Parker and Fenwick use semi-structured interviews, Lee uses unstructured interviews. In semi-structured interviews there is a topic guide with list of areas or questions to be covered with each respondent. This technique ensures that researchers will obtain all the information required, and gives respondents the freedom to respond in their own words, provide as much detail as they wish, and offer illustrations and explanations. Lee et al (2009) uses ground theory approach but incorporated with unstructured interviews. Unstructured interviews also known as are flexible but are more time-consuming than semi-structured since the interviewer listens and does not take the lead. The interviewer listens to what the interviewee has to say. The interviewee leads the conversation (Wood Ross-Kerr, 2011). However, anonymity for confidentiality which is of utmost importance is not possible. When using unstructured interviews, the researchers have to be able to establish rapport with the participant. The reason is that the interviewers have to be trusted if someone is to reveal intimate life information. This may lead to interviewee bias. Also, it is important to realise that unstructured interviewing can produce a great deal of data which can be difficult to analyse. Lee et al (2008) and Fenwick et al (2008) conducted the interviews themselves while Parker (2011) did not, thus reducing the bias. However, interviewer bias occurs even if someone else is conducting the interview. The number of mothers in the study of Lee et al (2008) was adequate since with in-depth interviews 20 participants are enough. However, to account for the small sample, more interviews and observations were done with the same participants in order to reach theoretical saturation. Usually informants are selected for in-depth interviews in a purposive manner questioning the generalizability of the results (Wood Kerr, 2011). A major controversy among grounded theory researchers relates to whether to follow the original Glaser and Strauss procedures or to use the adapted procedures of Strauss and Corbin (Polit Beck 2010). Grounded theory method according to Glaser emphasizes induction or emergence, and the individual researchers creativity within a clear frame of stages, while Strauss is more interested in validation criteria and a systematic approach. Parker (2011) uses the original Glaser and Strauss (1967) paradigm while Lee et al (2008) and Fenwick et al (2008) use Strauss and Corbin (1998) procedures. One of the fundamental features of the grounded theory approach is that data collection, data analysis, and sampling of study participants occur simultaneously. A procedure referred to as constant comparison is used to develop and refine theoretically relevant categories. Categories elicited from the data are constantly compared with data obtained earlier in the data collection process so that commonalities and variations can be determined. As data collection proceeds, the inquiry becomes increasingly focused on emerging theoretical concerns. All 3 studies use constant comparison. All the above 3 studies use audio-taping for data collection except for Fenwick et al (2008) who used field note documentation as well. Audio-taping enables eye contact to be maintained and to have a complete record for analyses, however, some interviewees may be nervous of tape-recorders. On the contrary, in note taking on the other hand, a lot of eye contact is lost unless a type of short-hand is learnt. However, the interviewer will have plenty of useful quotations for report when transcribing the interview. Randomized controlled trials consist of a complete experimental test of a new intervention, involving the random assignment of a large and varied sample to different groups (Polit Beck, 2010). The intention of an RCT is to arrive to a judgment as to whether the novelty of an intervention is more effective than the traditional intervention (Polit Beck, 2010). This intention was well noticed throughout the RCTs chosen by Ali etal., (2009). Wood Kerr, (2011) sustain that RCTs are the most rigorous method to determine a cause-effect relationship between the treatment and the outcome. Furthermore, RCTs were also described as the gold standard trial for evaluating the effectiveness of a clinical intervention ((Muijs 2010). One of the primary aims of RCTs is to prevent selection bias by distributing the patient, randomly between the two groups, so that the difference in the outcome and results can be justified and attributed only to the intervention under study. Thus, through random selection there is a better balancing of any confounding factors, therefore creating similarity between the groups (Cottrell McKenzie, 2010). In effect in this literature review, RCTs were found to be useful and beneficial to compare the effect of KMC and conventional care on the physiological aspects of the infant. Ali et al., (2009) chose to add blocking to randomisation so as to ensure a better balance in the number of infants allocated in the groups. These groups were randomized through simple randomization and the disruption of groups was achieved by delivering a concealed envelope technique. Through random sampling, Polit Beck (2010) explain that each element in the population has an equivalent, autonomous chance of being chosen. However, this design is not used frequently as it is lengthy and may be expensive (Wood Kerr, 2011). Chiu and Anderson (2008), use mixed methods of data collection by using both questionnaires and video-taped interviews. The use of multiple sources or referents to draw conclusions about what constitutes the truth is called triangulation. This is one approach in establishing credibility as it enables the researcher to counteract the weaknesses in both designs. The use of video-taping provides the most comprehensive recording of an interview since it captures body language, facial expressions and interaction (Gerrish and Lacey 2010). However the interviewee may become uncomfortable and act differently than in normal circumstances questioning the reliability of the data collected. In addition, questionnaires are the main research tools used in quantitative research. They are very advantageous as they can be constructed in such a way as to meet the objectives of almost any research project. In the Family Needs Inventory used by Nicholas-Sargent (2009), the ‘not applicable’ part was removed from the Likert scale in order to report definite opinions. Questionnaires can measure the participants factual knowledge about a certain subject or an idea or else they can be used to explore opinions, attitudes or behaviours (McNabb, 2008). Moreover, questionnaires are also less expensive than most other research instruments and are also less time-consuming . Self-administered questionnaires provide the participants with anonymity, and responses are not affected by the interviewers mood or presence (Wood Ross-Kerr, 2011). On the other hand, the main disadvantage of questionnaires is that there is a high possibility of a poor response rate since some questions are ignored, misinterpreted, incorrectly completed or inadequately detailed (Polit and Beck 2010). The RCT of Chiu and Anderson (2009) and Ali etal. (2009),, is one of the most powerful tools of research where people are allocated at random to receive one of several clinical interventions. However RCT’s are vulnerable to multiple types of bias at all stages of their workspan (Geretsegger et al 2012). Hence the need to establish validity and reliability. In the study done by both Ali etal.,(2009) and Chiu and Anderson (2009),the researchers increase the rigor on the study by using a large number of participants. In addition, Chiu and Anderson (2009) use the Nursing Child Assessment Satellite Training Program (NCAST) Feeding and Teaching scales. Nicholas-Sargent (2009), improved the rigour by using the Critical Care Family Needs Inventory (CCFNI), as a framework for the FNI. CCFNI has been thoroughly reported with results indicating internal consistency and construct validity (Gerrish and Lacey 2010). Despite this, Nicholas-Sargent (2009), use a small scale study and therefor e the results cannot be generalized. Limitations In the study done by Lee et al (2008), the data were only collected from one hospital in this present study causing generalisability of the results to be low. Moreover, the sample was restricted to those who did not have additional social, cultural or medical circumstances to consider. Moreover, coding was done by researcher itself and this might have caused some bias. Both Nicholas-Sargent (2009) and Parker (2011) use small scale studies but these were qualitative studies. Therefore, to a certain extent the findings cannot be generalized across the population of families involved with the NICU. In addition, Parker (2011) uses a retrospective study, which might have been subject to bias in recalling information. There was absence of pilot study in both Nicholas-Sargent (2009) and Chiu and Anderson (2009). The use of pilot studies helps to assess the design, methodology and feasibility of the tool and typically includes participants who are similar to those who will be used in the larger research study ( Wood Kerr 2011). Hence, their importance. Also, the instruments chosen by Chiu and Anderson (2009), being the (NCAST and the feeding and teaching scales) for this study might not be sensitive enough to capture any between-group difference in changes resulting from the intervention. Finally, Ali et al., (2009) fail to mention intention to treat analysis where researchers can introduce reality into research by outlining that not all randomised participants will continue throughout the study. Therefore, this might be a potential weakness in this study. It was also noted the there was no detailed report about the time intervals between the two different groups. Hence, this may also have introduced performance bias. In the grounded theory approach taken by Fenwich et al (2008), limitations lie in the method of data collection itself through semi-structured interviews that were tape-recorded and field note documentation done. The authors did not acknowledge limitations in the study. Recommendations Maternal contact Fenwich et al (2008) suggests prioritising maternal-infant closeness when underpinning policies and protocols and suggests the unrestricted access to their child. Lee et al (2008) found that in Taiwan mothers are allowed to visit for 30 minutes twice a day. In Malta, mothers are allowed to stay with the child 24 hours a day. In addition, skin-to-skin contact is recommended by both Lee et al (2008) and Chiu and Anderson (2009). The latter suggests that all mothers, if they are able and whether or not they ask for it, skin-to-skin contact should be encouraged. My suggestions on interventions for critically ill infants include encouraging the parents’ presence at the bedside, assisting the parents in personalizing the bedside, and teaching the parents to gently touch their infant. Another approach is to hang a simple picture board with the first names of nurses and practitioners near the entrance to the unit. This picture board helps anxious families feel welcomed in this healing environment. In our unit, those babies who have central lines such as umbilical arterial catheters (UAC), the mothers are not allowed to hold the baby for fear of bleeding if the UAC gets dislodged. However, if the mother shows signs of needing contact with the baby, we allow her to hold the baby with constant supervision. In the case of babies that are ventilated mothers are only allowed to hold their baby if the prognosis is very poor. Therefore, this shows that, if the baby is on long term ventilation, skin-to-skin is hindered from being introduced. Fenwich et al (2008), recommend the development of tools that can better evaluate the satisfaction of the mother. Hence, the need for longitudinal qualitative research. In my opinion this would yield good results when past experiences would show which improvements were helpful and which were not. NICE standards (2010), specify the use of surveys. We can incorporate these surveys after consideration with the midwifery officer. Mother-nurse-infant interaction Because of the complexity of illness, parents of critically ill infants are anxious and fear the worst with every visit to the NICU. Strategies need to be adapted to decrease maternal anxiety while supporting the needs of these infants. (Nicholas-Sargent 2009). Nurses play a vital role in helping parents throughout the stressful and challenging experience of the NICU by developing therapeutic relationships and providing emotional support. These approaches enable parents to feel more supported, more involved, confident, and more effective as parents of their vulnerable newborn. The experience of parents in the NICU occurs during an emotionally intense period fraught with anxiety, stress, depression, and feelings of hopelessness. Therefore, Nicholas-Sargent (2009) suggests that, it would be vital to do an NICU orientation for expectant parents with a high risk of giving birth to a premature infant or a compromised newborn. Supporting and facilitating their parenting role will help decrease their stress, strain, anxiety, and depression. Lee et al (2008), nurses need to respect the cultural preferences of mothers as this would promote desired health outcomes. This would aid in meaningful, holistic and individualized care. According to Nicholas-Sargent (2009), personalized one-to-one as opposed as opposed to group support would be helpful. In addition Nicholas-Sargent (2009), suggests that nurse education is needed to improve the awareness of the impact of the counselling service. However, the service needs to be more flexible due to fluctuations in the health condition of the baby. In fact, what we notice is that mothers would require counselling at different stages of the hospitalization. Therefore, if the service was refused once, it may still mean that mothers would need it at some other point in time. Nicholas-Sargent (2009), further suggests that the counselling service would be extended to the whole family from the hospital as well as in the community., Both the DH (2009), and NICE (2010) highlight the importance of Family-Centered Care (FCC) views the family as the ‘child’s primary source of strength and support’ and allows for collaboration, respect, and support with the parents and family during all levels of the service delivery. To foster participation in care for the infant, unrestricted visiting hours should be encouraged for the nuclear family of the neonate. In Malta, visiting hours are restricted to parents only due to increase in cross infection when family members were allowed to visit for 1 hour everyday during the day. However, timing of care may still be arranged to facilitate parents’ participation. In addition, special moments such as baby’s first time off CPAP (continuous positive airway pressure) needs to take place during parents’ presence. Cockfort (2011), highlights that missed opportunities to involve parents in care, heighten anxiety and can create a sense of sadness and loneliness . Information for mothers Mothers vary in the amount of information they can assimilate under stress. Therefore identifying parents’ feelings through active listening and observing will help us to pick up on parents cues and respond appropriately in order to provide parents with accurate and clear information (Fenwick et al 2008). Nicholas-Sargent (2009), adds that, information regarding the health status of the baby needs to be give in a timely provision. Parker (2011), recommends the access to certified interpreters for non-English speaking parents to enable them to ask questions and get the information they need as well as information regarding the counselling services. Likewise, an updated information board at the infant’s bedside helps mothers retain information while feeling welcome at the bedside. In my opinion, these interventions create an environment that facilitates maternal- infant attachment by promoting maternal competence with meaningful positive parenting skills and fostering partnership in care.. Conclusion In summary, the findings showed that parents of infants admitted to the NICU experience stress, depression, anxiety, and feelings of powerlessness, hopelessness, and alienation within the environment of the NICU. These situations are often overwhelming and catastrophic for the mothers keeping in mind that the process of motherhood is a protecting and loving phenomenon. Therefore mothers should participate in the care of their sick, fragile infant in the NICU through mother-infant interaction. Nurses need to be supportive and informative in dealing with parents in the NICU. Therefore, the need for parents to be given the access of interpretation by certified interpreters in order to overcome language barriers has been identified. Further, information and emotional support is required throughout the stay in the NICU, However, it was further found that information in preparation for discharge planning is vital. This enhances parental knowledge and decreases stress, which promotes more effective parenting. Further, as understanding of the parents’ experience of having an infant admitted to the NICU increases, nurses will be better prepared to meet parental needs and alleviate parental suffering. Providing holistic, developmentally supportive care and open communication with parents in this stressful experience is essential. Moreover, the need for family-centered care has been identified. REFERENCE LIST Ali, M.S., Sharma. J., Sharma. R., Alam. S. (2009). Kangaroo mother care as compare to conventional care for low birth weight babies. Dicle Tip Dergisi. 36(3), 155-160. Chiu S. Anderson G.C., (2009). Effect of early skin-to-skin contact on mother–preterm infant interaction through 18 months: Randomized controlled trial. International Journal of Nursing Studies, Vol. 46, pp.1168–1180. Cleveland, L.M., 2008. Parenting in the neonatal intensive care unit. Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic, and Neonatal Nursing, Vol. 37 (6), 666e691. Cockfort S., (2011). How can family centred care be improved to meet the needs of parents with a premature baby in neonatal intensive care? Journal of Neonatal Nursing, Vol.95(5), pp.365-368. Cottrell, R.R. McKenzie, J. F. (2011). Health Promotion and Education Research Methods using the Five-Chapter Thesis/Dissertation Model (2nd ed.). Sudbury, Canada, United Kingdom: Jones and Bartlett Publishers. DeRouck, S. Leys, M., (2009). Information needs of parents of children admitted to a neonatal intensive care unit. A review of the literature. Patient Education and Counselling, 76 (2), pp.159-173 DH: Department of Health, 2009. Toolkit for high-quality neonatal services. DH, London. Domanico R., Davis D.K., Coleman F. Davis B.O. (2010). Documenting the NICU design dilemma: comparative patient progress in open-ward and single family room units. Journal of Perinatology, Vol.31, pp. 281–288 Fenwick J., Barclay L., Schmied V.,(2008). Craving closeness: A grounded theory analysis of women’s experiences of mothering in the Special Care Nursery. Women and Birth, Vol. 21, pp.71—85. Geretsegger M., Holck U. and Gold C., (2012). Randomised controlled trial of improvisational music therapys effectiveness for children with autism spectrum disorders (TIME-A): study protocol. BMC Pediatrics Vol.12(2), pp.1471-2431. Gerrish K. Lacey A. (2010). The Research Process in Nursing. Blackwell Publishing Ltd. UK. 6th ed. Glaser, B.G., Strauss, A., 1967. The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research. Aldine, NewYork. Gray, D. E. (2009). Doing Research in the Real World (2nd ed.). London, California, New Delhi, Singapore: Sage Publications. Grech V., Cassar M. Distefano S., (2012). Nurse staffing levels on a regional neonatal paediatric intensive care unit. Journal of Paediatric Intensive Care, Vol. 1(1), pp.25-29. 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The Parental Experience of Having an Infant in the Newborn Intensive Care Unit. The Journal of Perinatal Education | Summer, Vol. 18(3), pp.23-29. Parker L., (2011). Mothers’ experience of receiving counselling/ psychotherapy on a neonatal intensive care unit (NICU). Journal of Neonatal Nursing, Vol.17, pp.182-189. Polit D.F. Beck C.T. (2010) Essentials of Nursing Research: Appraising Evidence for Nursing Practice, 7th ed. Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams Wilkins, Philadelphia. Nicholas-Sargent A., (2009). Predictors of needs in mothers with infants in the neonatal intensive care unit. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, Vol. 27(2), pp.195–205. Schira, M. (2009). Appraising a single Research Article. In Mateo, M. A. Kirchhoff, K. T. (Eds.), Research for advanced practice nurses: from evidence to practice (pp. 73-85). New York: Springer Publishing Company. Strauss A. Corbin J.( 1998). Basics of qualitative research. 2nd ed. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publishers;. 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Relationship Between EI and OP Amongst Librarians

Relationship Between EI and OP Amongst Librarians CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 INTRODUCTION This chapter is seeks to verify the limited studies into the relationship between EI and OP amongst librarians. There appears to be very little research, or study investigating the areas synthesizing library administration issues and the study of EI in information works. Although researchers allude to the need to be able to understand and manage their own emotions as an information provider, the lack of research combining the areas of EI of librarians in Malaysian public libraries suggests a large gap in a very important research area (Quinn, 2002; Hernon, 2008 and Singer, 2005). Consequently, a study that focuses on a public librarians perceived need for EI would fill this gap and therefore contribute to the existing EI literature. The following information is provided as a literature review encompassing an overview of the different constructs and theories of EI, as researched by several authors. The historical context and development of Malaysian Public Libraries will also be explored in this literature review. The topics of EI, and the area of information works, are reviewed individually within, as there is very little research on issues pertaining to the combination of these topics. This chapter furnishes an encompassing review on past literature, which covers a richness of information on EI research in general. There are 8 parts itemized as follows: Part 1 contains the introduction; Part 2 gives the description of EI history, theory, models and development; Part 3 discusses EI and applications in the workplace EI; Part 4 discusses librarians standard skills and capabilities; Part 5 shows clearly occupational performance; Part 6 examines the relationship between EI and performance, and finally, Part 7 summarizes all elements of this review. 2.2 EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE 2.2.1 Introduction Twenty years ago, researchers didnt much pay attention the topic of emotions in the workplace, perhaps because emotions were viewed too difficult to be measured and were thought of as illogical, unstable, and not fit for decision making tool; they were therefore less popular and largely unexplored among researchers (Arvey et al., 1998 and Muchinsky, 2000). Early 1990 however, researchers have begun to recognize that emotions should not be excluded from skill and competency of organizational, because it can be used in ways that contribute constructively to organizations (Arvey et al., 1998 and Fredman, Ghini and Dijk, 2008). In relation to this, it is motivating researchers to study the emotions in organizations. For instance, study on occupational performance has adopted a more affective focus. Additionally, new interest in the people feeling on work behavior has been influential in turning attention to the more emotional side of workplace experiences (e.g., Brief, Butcher, Roberson, 1995; Fisher Ashkanasy, 2000). Fisher and Ashkanasy (2000) and Ryback Wenny (2007) also claim the popularity of EI as a mechanism for new research in the workplace. The information below was derived from the previous empirical studies and multiple formats of resources. 2.1.2 Definition There is no definitive definition of EI. Many authors define EI as the ability to understand feelings, either internally or externally. Numerous studies indicate that, knowledge, cognitive skills and abilities are usually blended with performance. The term and concepts of EI were coined by Golemen (1995; 1998) in his two books, EI and Working with EI and developed a dimension and attribute of EI as self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy, and social skill. However different authors have defined EI to some extent differently from Goleman. Mayer and Saloveys (1997) meaning is a kind of intelligence in that it emphasizes thinking, perceiving, understanding, appraising, discriminating, and identifying emotion. Golemans concept of EI, in distinction, relates to the way people function emotionally if their functioning is at its potential or at least is not problematic. From the viewpoint of Weisingers (1998) gives descriptions and definition of EI is comparatively close to Golemans when he described EI is the intelligent use of emotions. It in comparison to Golemans, Cooper and Sawafs (1997) delimitation gives greater attention to the higher directions of human behavior, mainly aspects correlated with leadership. Their concept comprehends factors such as intuition, integrity, personal purpose, and creativity which is not emphasized by Goleman. In contrast, Simmons and Simmons (1997) approach to EI are very different from Golemans when they relate EI to multiple relatively invariant character traits. These theorists and many others defined and explained the concept of EI. There is no single definition in defining EI. Here I will include the five most popular ones. EI can be defined as: 1. â€Å"the ability to monitor ones own and others feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use the information to guide ones thinking and action† (Mayer Salovey,1993). 2. â€Å"ability to recognize and express emotions in yourself, your ability to understand the emotions of colleagues.† (Gardner, 1983). 3. â€Å"the intelligent use of emotions: you intentionally make your emotions work for you by using them to help guide your behaviour and thinking in ways that enhance your results.† (Weisinger, 1998). 4. â€Å"the ability to: 1) be aware of, to understand, and to express oneself; 2) be aware of, to understand, and to relate to others; 3) deal with strong emotions and control ones impulses; and 4) adapt to change and to solve problems of a personal or a social nature (Reuven Bar-On, 1998). 5. â€Å"the capacity for recognizing our own feelings and those of others, for motivating ourselves, and for managing emotions well in ourselves and in our relationships.(Goleman, 1998) Based on the profusion of definitions, there seems to be no major differences among the definition of EI throughout the years. In consequence, EI generally entails the ability to understand and recognize feeling internally or intrapersonal and externally or interpersonal to make good decision. More timely, for this study, the researcher adopts the comprehensive of EI articulated by Goleman (1998) â€Å"a learned capability based on EI that resulted in outstanding performance at work†. EI echoes how an individuals possible for mastering the skills of Self-Awareness, Self-Management, Social Awareness, and Relationship Management translates into work performance. Having defined EI, the following sections will highlight the literature related to EI and performance in library works. 2.1.2 Evolution of EI In 1920, Thordike described the concept of EI as a form of social intelligence. He has divided intelligence into three facets; understanding and managing ideas (abstract intelligence), concrete objects (mechanical intelligence), and people (social intelligence). In his expression: By social intelligence is meant the ability to understand and manage men and women, boys and girls to act wisely in human relations. Further, in 1940, Wechsler, viewed intelligence as an effect and conceived that assessments of general intelligence are not adequate and consider that non-intellectual factors, such as personality, will influence the development of an individuals intelligence. Additionally, attention in social intelligence or other intelligence was reinvigorated in 1983 when Gardner introduced the theory of multiple intelligence (Brualdi, 1996; Gardner, 1995) and proposed an extensive field of differing intelligences. In relation to this, Mayer and Salovey, (1990) coined the term EI in their article â€Å"EI,† from the journal â€Å"Imagination, Cognition and Personality† while Goleman, (1995) brought EI to the characteristic and developed his own model of EI. Ultimately, the concept of EI has been expanded and applied to numerous disciplines including services (e.g. Sales, Hospitality, banking, and school and information services etc). The evolving of EI as described in 2.1 below. 2.1.2.1 Social Intelligence Social intelligence can be defined differently. Social intelligence can be defined as â€Å"the ability to understand and manage people to act wisely in human relations† (Thorndike, 1920, p. 228). Nevertheless, in the late 1930s, Thorndike and Stein (1937) altered the earlier definition of social intelligence to read, the â€Å"ability to understand and manage people† while a few years later, Gardner (1983) outlined his theory of multiple intelligences and he described in detail seven â€Å"relatively autonomous† of human intellectual competences (eg; linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, personal, interpersonal, and intrapersonal). Likewise, Moss and Hunt (1927) described social intelligence as the ability to get along with others (p. 108). Six years later as Vernon (1933), defined the social intelligence as the persons ability to get along with people in general, social technique or ease in society, knowledge of social matters, susceptibility to s timuli from other members of a group, as well as insight into the temporary moods or underlying personality traits of strangers (p. 44). It was recognised by Maulding (2002) that EI was closely related to personal intelligence and was further qualified by Gardner with is employment of two personal intelligence aspects; intrapersonal and interpersonal. Intrapersonal intelligence was further depicted by Gardner as the capacity to be discriminating among ones feelings; to label them, and use them in ways to understand and guide ones behavior and interpersonal intelligence as â€Å"turns outward, to other individuals†. This focal point examined â€Å"the ability to notice and make distinctions among other individuals, and in particular, among their moods, temperaments, motivations, and intentions†. Thus â€Å"Personal Intelligence† covers the close relationship of both intrapersonal and interpersonal intelligence because, as Gardner noted, â€Å"these two forms of knowledge are intimately intermingled†. 2.1.2.1 Intelligence There were numerous outstanding theorists were asked to define intelligence; unfortunate some definitions were obtained (Sternberg Detterman, 1986) differently. White (2002) clarification, ‘In philosophical works we can find discussions of consciousness, perception and sensation, thought, action, memory, emotion and imagination, but rarely anything on intelligence (White, 2002, p.78). In other words, Hand (2004) discussed the concept of Intelligence that is in general as stipulating technical senses and attempting to describe the ordinary sense. In contrast (Neisser et al., 1996) described intelligence are attempts to clarify and organize a vast array of phenomena that include: â€Å"the ability to understand complex ideas, to adapt effectively to environments, to learn from experience, to engage in various forms of reasoning, to overcome obstacles by taking thought†. Even when experts in intelligence discuss the definition there appears more controversy than consensus (Matthews et al., 2002). Unlike other definitions of intelligence, Wechsler (1958) described intelligence as â€Å"the aggregate or the global capacity of the individual to act purposely, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment†. Although many definitions were given by different authors, however, many studies of intelligence, in particular the psychometric approach, have provided a â€Å"predictor† of success (Mayer, Salovey, Caruso, 2000). 2.1.2.2 Emotions Emotion can be categorized as part of Social Intelligence was introduced by Gardner in 1930. The science of emotion has been problematic and is impeded with the complexities of linking tangible realities to the elusive, subjective, and experiential nature of emotions (Matthews et al., 2002). In the context of psychology, Salovey and Mayer provided a definition of emotions as: Organized responses crossing boundaries of many psychological subsystems, including physiological, cognitive, motivational and experiential systems. Emotions typically arise in response to an event, either internal or external, that has a positively or negatively balanced meaning for an individual. Emotions can be distinguished from the closely related concept of mood in that emotions are shorter and generally more intense (1990, p. 186). 2.1.2.3 Emotional Intelligence Mayer and Salovey (1990) wrote an article and outlining their EI framework. EI was listed by them at that time as a division of social intelligence. Elements of Gardners personal intelligence study were employed when Mayer and Salovey defined EI as â€Å"the ability to monitor ones own and others feelings, to discriminate amongst them and to use this information to guide ones thinking and actions† (p. 189). The book entitled EI (1995) was published as a way of coping with the pointless acts that were taking place, (Salopek, 1998) and became the best seller status. After that the interest in EI took place (Mandell Pherwani, 2003). Goleman persistent on this success in 1998 with a book entitled Working with EI where he reviewed 18 EI competencies usable in the workplace. Mayer and Saloveys (1990) definition of EI were modified by Goleman (1998c) with his revised definition of EI, â€Å" ‘EI refers to the capacity for recognizing our own feelings and those of others, for motivating ourselves, and for managing emotions well in ourselves and in our relationships† p317). Goleman listed 5 social and emotional groups self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy, and social skills. This was subsequently reduced to just 4 after the arrival and review of new information. He continues to refine his model and emphasize a mixture of interpersonal intelligence and intrapersonal intelligence in defining EI and employed the four clusters (Maulding, 2002). The 4 new groups were labelled as self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and relationship management (Goleman, Boyatzis, McKee, 2002). Self-awareness and self-management were merged into a â€Å"personal competence† category which included the capabilities that â€Å"determine how we manage ourselves† (Goleman, Boyatzis, McKee, 2002, p. 39). The capabilities that â€Å"determine how we manage relationships† define the Social Competency category (Goleman, Boyatzis, McKee, 2002, p. 39) and include the social awareness and relationship management groups. In the context of thois study, researcher will use the GolemansModel as baseline or guideline to develop EI measurement for librarians. Yet a few competencies related to Malaysian public librarian nature will be considered (eg, spiritual, information literacy, Islamic values ect.) in the new model. Table 2.1 Five Periods of Development in Emotions and Intelligence in the Past Century Period The Emergence of The EI Concept 1900-1969 (Thorndike, 1920) Intelligence and Emotions as Separate Narrow Fields Psychometric approach to intelligence is developed and refined.  · Movement from Darwins theory for heritability and evolution of emotional responses to now being viewed as culturally determined.  · Social Intelligence (Thorndike, 1920) as the concept is introduced. 1970-1989 (David Wechsler, 1940) Non-intellective aspects of general intelligence The field of cognition and affect emerged to examine how emotions interacted with thoughts.  · Gardner (1983) theory of multiple intelligences described an intrapersonal and an interpersonal intelligence.  · Empirical work on social intelligence developed four components: social skills, empathy skills, pro-social attitudes, and emotionality (sensitivity). 1990-1993 (Gardner, 1983) Multiple intelligences; interpersonal intelligence-people smart; intrapersonal intelligence-self-smart Mayer and Salovey publish a series of articles on EI.  · First ability measure of EI published.  · Editor of the journal Intelligence argued for an existence of EI.  · Further developments for EI in the brain sciences. 1994-1997 (Goleman 1995) The Popularization and Broadening EQ  · Goleman (1995) publishes EI which becomes worldwide best-seller.  · Time magazine used the term â€Å"EQ† on its cover (Gibbs, 1995, October 2).  · Measures of EI using mixed model theories were published. 1998-Present (Peter Salovey Jack Mayer, 1990 EI  · Refinements to the concept of EI.  · New measures of EI introduced.  · Appearance of peer-reviewed articles on the subject. 2.2.4 2.2 Model of EI 2.2.1 Introduction There are many researchers that exist within the area of intelligences developed several models and theories to address EI (Gardner, 1990; Bar-On, 2008; Bernet, 1996; Brown, 1999; Brualdi, 1996; Burgess, Palmer, Stough Walls, 2001; Caruso, Mayer, Perkins Salovey, 1999; Cherniss, 2007; Ciarrochi, Chan, Caputi, Roberts, 2001; Dulewicz Higgs, 2000; Finegan, 1998; Gardner, 1995; Goleman, 1995; Goleman, 1998; Goleman, 2008; Langley, 2000; Mayer Geher, 2007; Mayer, Caruso Salovey, 2003; Mayer, Salovey Caruso, 2000; Mayer, 2001; Mayer, Salovey, Caruso, Sitarenios, 2001; Mayer, Perkins, Caruso Salovey, 2001; McDowelle Bell, 2000; Pfeiffer, 2001; Reiff, Hates, Bramel, 2001; Salovey Mayer, 1990; Salovey Sluyter, 1997; Weiss, 2000). The model of EI is comprised into two types; the ability model and mixed model. a) Ability model can be defined, EI as a set of mental abilities and constructs claims about the importance of emotional information and the potential uses of reasoning well with that information. Representatives of this model are Mayer and Salovey (1997) with four-branch model of EI. b) mixed model, whereas more commonly orienting and mixes mental abilities with personality attributes. Model from Goleman (2001), Cooper Sawaf (1997) and Bar-on (1997) are representatives for mixed model, but they expanded the meaning of EI by explicitly mixing the ability to understand and process emotion with other diverse parts of personality or skills, hence creating mixed approaches to EI. On the other word, the mixed model is defined as a combination of non cognitive abilities, personality traits and competencies (Goldsmith, 2008). 2.2.2 Models Assessing Emotional Intelligence 2.1.2 Bar-Ons Model of EI Bar-On reports that the EQ-i â€Å"was originally constructed as an experimental instrument designed to examine the concept of emotional and social functioning in the early 1980s (Bar-On, 2001, p.363). He created the term emotional quotient (EQ) to describe his mixed approach to the evaluation of an individuals general intelligence. He explained that the emotional quotient reflects our ability to operate successfully with other people and with our feelings (Bar-On, 2001). Bar-On developed the Bar-On EQ-i and instrument has been translated into twenty-two languages and normative data has been collected in more than fifteen countries (Bar-On, 2001). This EI inventory is the first scientifically developed and validated measure of EI that reflects ones ability to deal with environmental challenges and helps to predict ones success in life, including professional and personal pursuits (AbiSamra, 2000 and Bar-on, 2001). This model is separated into five different scales with fifteen subscales as detailed in Table 2.3. The first of these scales assess an individuals Intrapersonal EQ which consists of self-regard, emotional self-awareness, assertiveness, independence and self- actualization. The second scale assesses the individuals Interpersonal EQ consisting of empathy, social responsibility, and interpersonal relationships. Adaptability EQ is the third measure of Bar-Ons scale. This scale focuses on reality testing, flexibility and problem solving or how an individual handles emotion in the moment. The fourth scale assesses an individuals Stress Management EQ. This scale is comprised of stress tolerance and impulse control. The fifth and final scale of the EQ-i measures an individuals General Mood EQ, consisting of optimism and happiness. Bar-On reports that the research â€Å"findings obtained to date suggest that the EQ-i is measuring emotional and social intelligence†¦more specifically, the EQ-i is tapping the ability to be aware of, understand, control, and express emotions† (Bar-On, 2001, pp.372 -373). This ability model created by Bar-On is a selection of emotional, personal and social abilities that affect an individuals overall ability to manage the daily pressures and demands of life. Bar-On further reports that the ability is â€Å"apparently based on a core capacity to be aware of, understand, control and express emotions effectively† (p.374). Although Bar-Ons early research focused on the emotional quotient, it was not until the 1990s that EI truly began to receive recognition as a distinct form of intelligence (Geher, Warner Brown, 2001; Salovey Sluyter, 1997). The concept of an individuals EI (EI) was explained and expanded upon by Mayer and Salovey in 1990 (Mayer, Perkins, Caruso S alovey, 2001), and popularized by Daniel Goleman in 1995 (Goleman, 1995). 2.1.3 Golemans In 1995, Goleman elaborated on the original Salovey Mayer definition of EI to suggest five major EI domains as reported in Table 4. Table 4: Golemans original model of EI. Golemans Model of EI 1. Assessment of emotions 2. Regulation of emotions 3. Motivating and emotional self control 4. Understanding and recognizing emotions 5. Relationships and emotions The first of Golemans EI domains includes knowing ones emotions. This domain involves assessing and knowing what the emotion is as it occurs. The second domain of managing emotions is described as handling those emotions in an appropriate manner that builds on self-awareness. Motivating oneself or emotional self-control is the third domain. The fourth domain involves recognizing emotions in others. This domain involves empathy and Goleman considers it to be a â€Å"people skill† (Goleman, 1995, p.43). The last domain in Golemans original model consists of handling relationships. Goleman states that the ability of handling a relationship is in part the ability of managing emotions in others. Goleman contends that capacities for EI each have a distinctive involvement to form our lives. To some extent, these capacities build upon one another to formulate social skills. These abilities do not guarantee that people will develop or display emotional competencies. Goleman suggests th at individuals use competencies in many areas across many spectrums. Goleman has currently revised his original theory of EI as shown in Table 5. He now suggests that there are four domains rather than his original five domains (Goleman, 2001B). Table 5: Golemans current model of EI. Golemans Current Model of EI 1. Emotional Self Awareness 2. Emotional Self Management 3. Social Awareness 4. Relationship Management The first component or cluster of EI is that of Emotional Self- Awareness, or knowing what one feels. Recognizing ones own feelings, how they affect ones performance, and the realization of our own strengths as well as our weaknesses, is an important part of the self-awareness cluster. The second component of EI is Emotional Self-Management. This component reflects the ability to regulate stressful affects such as anxiety or anger, as well as how to deal with those situations. This component is reflected when an individual seems to keep their cool during a stressful situation. Self-management also reflects the abilities of an individual to be flexible and adaptable, looking at different perspectives of a situation. Social-Awareness, the third component, encompasses the competency of empathy. The Social-Awareness cluster is described as the cluster where an individual is aware of others emotions, concerns, and needs. Being aware of this information and internally processing it, allows the individual to read situations and act accordingly. The Relationship Management component makes up the fourth segment of Golemans current model. This component relates to how we interact with others in emotional situations. Goleman believes that if we cannot control our emotional outbursts and impulses, and we lack the necessary skill of empathy, there is less chance that we will be effective in our relationships. The Relationship Management cluster includes many of the skills necessary for being successful in social situations. Communication is also an essential element in the relationship management cluster (Goleman, 2001b). According to Goleman (2001a), EI at its most general rating, refers to the abilities to identify, reflect and adjust emotions in ourselves as well as to be aware of the emotions of others. Currently, Goleman relates the capacities for each domain in his EI model are: makes a unique contribution to job performance; strong communications; capacities build upon one another; does not guarantee people will develop or display the associated competencies; The general list is to some extent applicable to all jobs. Although Goleman explains that these capacities are hierarchical, meaning that one cannot fully pass on to the next phase or tier without accomplishing the previous stage with some degree of success. These capacities are not fixed and an individual can experience many levels at the same time. Goleman (1998) also states that EI determines our potential for learning the practical skills that underlie the four EI clusters. He maintains that emotional competence illustrates how much of that potential we have realized by learning and mastering skills and translating EI into on the job capabilities. According to Hall Torrance (1980), empathy and super-awareness to the needs of others is a trait that lies outside the realm of human abilities that can be measured. Hall Torrance report that many attempts have been made to measure these abilities, but with very little success. In their view, if empathy and awareness to others needs were accessed in a way that was based on reasoning, those qualities may reflect a measurable intellectual ability that would be associated with friendliness, compassion and happiness; all traits reported to be representative characteristics of emotionally intelligent individuals (Goleman, 1995; Pfeiffer, 2001). The information reported in 1980 by Hall and Torrance was prescient in that these traits are currently being measured as traits of EI. The traits of flexibility and freedom of thoughts as well as a high rating of motivation, either intrinsic or extrinsic, the ability to express emotion, the ability to manage stress, self confidence, and the ability to cope with tension are also valued characteristics of EI (Caruso, Mayer, Perkins, Salovey, 1999; Cherniss, 1998; Goleman, 1995, 1997; Levinson, 1997; Olszewski-Kubilius, 2000; Pfeiffer, 2001; Reiff, Hates Bramel, 2001). Currently, Goleman emphasizes that EI at its most general rating, refers to the abilities to identify, reflect and adjust emotions in ourselves as well as to be aware of the emotions of others (Cherniss Goleman, 2001; Goleman, 2001A). According to Goleman, EI refers to the ability to recognize our own feelings and those of others, to motivate ourselves, and to manage emotions in ourselves and in our relationships. (Clawson 1999; Dulewicz Higgs 2000; Goleman 1998; Burgess, Palmer, Stough Walls 2001). In another cognitive research study conducted by Sternberg, Wagner, Williams, and Horvath (cited in McDowelle Bell, 1998) it is reported that these differences in IQ and success at work accounted for between 4% and 25% variance of job performance. This leads us to the conclusion that a major part of what enhances our job performance is affected by non-IQ factors. McDowelle Bell (1998) state â€Å"emotionality and rationality complement each other in the work world. They can be viewe d as inseparable parts of the life of the organization. 2.1.4 Salovey and Mayers Since the origination of the theory of EI in 1990, Mayer and Salovey have worked diligently to refine their academic and scientific model of EI model. Their current model, developed in 1997, is decidedly cognitive in focus and revolves around four tiers or ratings that are not genetically fixed or set in early childhood. As people grow and develop, they also seem to develop a greater sense of EI suggesting that these traits of EI can be developed over time (Epstein, 1999; Ford-Martin, 2001; Goleman, 2001A; Weiss, 2000). According to Mayer, Perkins, Caruso Salovey (2001), the emotionally intelligent person is skilled in four distinct branches: identifying, using, understanding, and regulating emotions. These four distinct areas are outlined in Mayer and Saloveys current model. The newest model begins with the idea that emotions contain information about relationships (Mayer, Salovey, Caruso, and Sitarenios (2001). (See Table 6). The recognition, the evaluation and the communication of emotions initiate the first branch of Mayer and Saloveys model. The second branch involves using emotions to think constructively such as utilizing those emotions to make judgments, the consideration of an alternative viewpoint, and an appreciation that a change in emotional state and point of view can promote various types of solutions to problems. The third branch combines the abilities of classifying and differentiating between emotions to help integrate different feelings. This rating also works toward helping us t o form rules about the feelings we experience. The fourth and final branch involves the ability to take the emotions we experience and use them in support of a social goal (Finegan, 1998; Cherniss Goleman, 2001). The four hierarchical developmental branches established by Mayer and Salovey in 1997, although different from Golemans ratings of EI, seem to incorporate several fundamental principles of personal development theory. These developmental stages discussed by Salovey and Mayer are reported to be hierarchical. The Mayer and Salovey model frames the complexity of emotional skills that develop from the first tier and continue through the fourth, whereas Golemans competencies, in contrast, can be viewed along a continuum of mastery. Caruso, Mayer, Perkins, Salovey (2001), expected individuals need to be able to identify their emotions as well as the emotions of others. Using those emotions, understanding those emotions, and having the ability to manage those emotions is also required to be successful. Caruso et al. (2001) relate that when an individual works in an administrative or work environment that requires the cooperation and collaboration, the skills of EI become even more essential. Caruso et al. (2001) also report that EI can assist in facilitating this work in helping to generate new and creative ideas and solutions to problems. At times, some of the problems that are challenging an individual can be very complex, while at other times the problem-solving task may be effortless. According to Caruso et al. (2001), problem solving requires creative thought to generate ideal solutions. Caruso et al. (2001) deduce that EI can help the individual to think creatively in many ways such as, viewing the problem from multiple perspectives, brainstorming or generating new and creative ideas, being inventive, generating original ideas and solutions to the problem, and defining and recognizing new solutions. Table 2.3: Characteristics of Selected EI Model Bar-On (1980) Mixed Model Goleman (2005) Performance Model Mayer, Caruso and Salovey (1990) Ability Model (1) Awareness, Intrapersonal Assertiveness, EQ Self-Regard, Relationship Between EI and OP Amongst Librarians Relationship Between EI and OP Amongst Librarians CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 INTRODUCTION This chapter is seeks to verify the limited studies into the relationship between EI and OP amongst librarians. There appears to be very little research, or study investigating the areas synthesizing library administration issues and the study of EI in information works. Although researchers allude to the need to be able to understand and manage their own emotions as an information provider, the lack of research combining the areas of EI of librarians in Malaysian public libraries suggests a large gap in a very important research area (Quinn, 2002; Hernon, 2008 and Singer, 2005). Consequently, a study that focuses on a public librarians perceived need for EI would fill this gap and therefore contribute to the existing EI literature. The following information is provided as a literature review encompassing an overview of the different constructs and theories of EI, as researched by several authors. The historical context and development of Malaysian Public Libraries will also be explored in this literature review. The topics of EI, and the area of information works, are reviewed individually within, as there is very little research on issues pertaining to the combination of these topics. This chapter furnishes an encompassing review on past literature, which covers a richness of information on EI research in general. There are 8 parts itemized as follows: Part 1 contains the introduction; Part 2 gives the description of EI history, theory, models and development; Part 3 discusses EI and applications in the workplace EI; Part 4 discusses librarians standard skills and capabilities; Part 5 shows clearly occupational performance; Part 6 examines the relationship between EI and performance, and finally, Part 7 summarizes all elements of this review. 2.2 EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE 2.2.1 Introduction Twenty years ago, researchers didnt much pay attention the topic of emotions in the workplace, perhaps because emotions were viewed too difficult to be measured and were thought of as illogical, unstable, and not fit for decision making tool; they were therefore less popular and largely unexplored among researchers (Arvey et al., 1998 and Muchinsky, 2000). Early 1990 however, researchers have begun to recognize that emotions should not be excluded from skill and competency of organizational, because it can be used in ways that contribute constructively to organizations (Arvey et al., 1998 and Fredman, Ghini and Dijk, 2008). In relation to this, it is motivating researchers to study the emotions in organizations. For instance, study on occupational performance has adopted a more affective focus. Additionally, new interest in the people feeling on work behavior has been influential in turning attention to the more emotional side of workplace experiences (e.g., Brief, Butcher, Roberson, 1995; Fisher Ashkanasy, 2000). Fisher and Ashkanasy (2000) and Ryback Wenny (2007) also claim the popularity of EI as a mechanism for new research in the workplace. The information below was derived from the previous empirical studies and multiple formats of resources. 2.1.2 Definition There is no definitive definition of EI. Many authors define EI as the ability to understand feelings, either internally or externally. Numerous studies indicate that, knowledge, cognitive skills and abilities are usually blended with performance. The term and concepts of EI were coined by Golemen (1995; 1998) in his two books, EI and Working with EI and developed a dimension and attribute of EI as self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy, and social skill. However different authors have defined EI to some extent differently from Goleman. Mayer and Saloveys (1997) meaning is a kind of intelligence in that it emphasizes thinking, perceiving, understanding, appraising, discriminating, and identifying emotion. Golemans concept of EI, in distinction, relates to the way people function emotionally if their functioning is at its potential or at least is not problematic. From the viewpoint of Weisingers (1998) gives descriptions and definition of EI is comparatively close to Golemans when he described EI is the intelligent use of emotions. It in comparison to Golemans, Cooper and Sawafs (1997) delimitation gives greater attention to the higher directions of human behavior, mainly aspects correlated with leadership. Their concept comprehends factors such as intuition, integrity, personal purpose, and creativity which is not emphasized by Goleman. In contrast, Simmons and Simmons (1997) approach to EI are very different from Golemans when they relate EI to multiple relatively invariant character traits. These theorists and many others defined and explained the concept of EI. There is no single definition in defining EI. Here I will include the five most popular ones. EI can be defined as: 1. â€Å"the ability to monitor ones own and others feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use the information to guide ones thinking and action† (Mayer Salovey,1993). 2. â€Å"ability to recognize and express emotions in yourself, your ability to understand the emotions of colleagues.† (Gardner, 1983). 3. â€Å"the intelligent use of emotions: you intentionally make your emotions work for you by using them to help guide your behaviour and thinking in ways that enhance your results.† (Weisinger, 1998). 4. â€Å"the ability to: 1) be aware of, to understand, and to express oneself; 2) be aware of, to understand, and to relate to others; 3) deal with strong emotions and control ones impulses; and 4) adapt to change and to solve problems of a personal or a social nature (Reuven Bar-On, 1998). 5. â€Å"the capacity for recognizing our own feelings and those of others, for motivating ourselves, and for managing emotions well in ourselves and in our relationships.(Goleman, 1998) Based on the profusion of definitions, there seems to be no major differences among the definition of EI throughout the years. In consequence, EI generally entails the ability to understand and recognize feeling internally or intrapersonal and externally or interpersonal to make good decision. More timely, for this study, the researcher adopts the comprehensive of EI articulated by Goleman (1998) â€Å"a learned capability based on EI that resulted in outstanding performance at work†. EI echoes how an individuals possible for mastering the skills of Self-Awareness, Self-Management, Social Awareness, and Relationship Management translates into work performance. Having defined EI, the following sections will highlight the literature related to EI and performance in library works. 2.1.2 Evolution of EI In 1920, Thordike described the concept of EI as a form of social intelligence. He has divided intelligence into three facets; understanding and managing ideas (abstract intelligence), concrete objects (mechanical intelligence), and people (social intelligence). In his expression: By social intelligence is meant the ability to understand and manage men and women, boys and girls to act wisely in human relations. Further, in 1940, Wechsler, viewed intelligence as an effect and conceived that assessments of general intelligence are not adequate and consider that non-intellectual factors, such as personality, will influence the development of an individuals intelligence. Additionally, attention in social intelligence or other intelligence was reinvigorated in 1983 when Gardner introduced the theory of multiple intelligence (Brualdi, 1996; Gardner, 1995) and proposed an extensive field of differing intelligences. In relation to this, Mayer and Salovey, (1990) coined the term EI in their article â€Å"EI,† from the journal â€Å"Imagination, Cognition and Personality† while Goleman, (1995) brought EI to the characteristic and developed his own model of EI. Ultimately, the concept of EI has been expanded and applied to numerous disciplines including services (e.g. Sales, Hospitality, banking, and school and information services etc). The evolving of EI as described in 2.1 below. 2.1.2.1 Social Intelligence Social intelligence can be defined differently. Social intelligence can be defined as â€Å"the ability to understand and manage people to act wisely in human relations† (Thorndike, 1920, p. 228). Nevertheless, in the late 1930s, Thorndike and Stein (1937) altered the earlier definition of social intelligence to read, the â€Å"ability to understand and manage people† while a few years later, Gardner (1983) outlined his theory of multiple intelligences and he described in detail seven â€Å"relatively autonomous† of human intellectual competences (eg; linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, personal, interpersonal, and intrapersonal). Likewise, Moss and Hunt (1927) described social intelligence as the ability to get along with others (p. 108). Six years later as Vernon (1933), defined the social intelligence as the persons ability to get along with people in general, social technique or ease in society, knowledge of social matters, susceptibility to s timuli from other members of a group, as well as insight into the temporary moods or underlying personality traits of strangers (p. 44). It was recognised by Maulding (2002) that EI was closely related to personal intelligence and was further qualified by Gardner with is employment of two personal intelligence aspects; intrapersonal and interpersonal. Intrapersonal intelligence was further depicted by Gardner as the capacity to be discriminating among ones feelings; to label them, and use them in ways to understand and guide ones behavior and interpersonal intelligence as â€Å"turns outward, to other individuals†. This focal point examined â€Å"the ability to notice and make distinctions among other individuals, and in particular, among their moods, temperaments, motivations, and intentions†. Thus â€Å"Personal Intelligence† covers the close relationship of both intrapersonal and interpersonal intelligence because, as Gardner noted, â€Å"these two forms of knowledge are intimately intermingled†. 2.1.2.1 Intelligence There were numerous outstanding theorists were asked to define intelligence; unfortunate some definitions were obtained (Sternberg Detterman, 1986) differently. White (2002) clarification, ‘In philosophical works we can find discussions of consciousness, perception and sensation, thought, action, memory, emotion and imagination, but rarely anything on intelligence (White, 2002, p.78). In other words, Hand (2004) discussed the concept of Intelligence that is in general as stipulating technical senses and attempting to describe the ordinary sense. In contrast (Neisser et al., 1996) described intelligence are attempts to clarify and organize a vast array of phenomena that include: â€Å"the ability to understand complex ideas, to adapt effectively to environments, to learn from experience, to engage in various forms of reasoning, to overcome obstacles by taking thought†. Even when experts in intelligence discuss the definition there appears more controversy than consensus (Matthews et al., 2002). Unlike other definitions of intelligence, Wechsler (1958) described intelligence as â€Å"the aggregate or the global capacity of the individual to act purposely, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment†. Although many definitions were given by different authors, however, many studies of intelligence, in particular the psychometric approach, have provided a â€Å"predictor† of success (Mayer, Salovey, Caruso, 2000). 2.1.2.2 Emotions Emotion can be categorized as part of Social Intelligence was introduced by Gardner in 1930. The science of emotion has been problematic and is impeded with the complexities of linking tangible realities to the elusive, subjective, and experiential nature of emotions (Matthews et al., 2002). In the context of psychology, Salovey and Mayer provided a definition of emotions as: Organized responses crossing boundaries of many psychological subsystems, including physiological, cognitive, motivational and experiential systems. Emotions typically arise in response to an event, either internal or external, that has a positively or negatively balanced meaning for an individual. Emotions can be distinguished from the closely related concept of mood in that emotions are shorter and generally more intense (1990, p. 186). 2.1.2.3 Emotional Intelligence Mayer and Salovey (1990) wrote an article and outlining their EI framework. EI was listed by them at that time as a division of social intelligence. Elements of Gardners personal intelligence study were employed when Mayer and Salovey defined EI as â€Å"the ability to monitor ones own and others feelings, to discriminate amongst them and to use this information to guide ones thinking and actions† (p. 189). The book entitled EI (1995) was published as a way of coping with the pointless acts that were taking place, (Salopek, 1998) and became the best seller status. After that the interest in EI took place (Mandell Pherwani, 2003). Goleman persistent on this success in 1998 with a book entitled Working with EI where he reviewed 18 EI competencies usable in the workplace. Mayer and Saloveys (1990) definition of EI were modified by Goleman (1998c) with his revised definition of EI, â€Å" ‘EI refers to the capacity for recognizing our own feelings and those of others, for motivating ourselves, and for managing emotions well in ourselves and in our relationships† p317). Goleman listed 5 social and emotional groups self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy, and social skills. This was subsequently reduced to just 4 after the arrival and review of new information. He continues to refine his model and emphasize a mixture of interpersonal intelligence and intrapersonal intelligence in defining EI and employed the four clusters (Maulding, 2002). The 4 new groups were labelled as self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and relationship management (Goleman, Boyatzis, McKee, 2002). Self-awareness and self-management were merged into a â€Å"personal competence† category which included the capabilities that â€Å"determine how we manage ourselves† (Goleman, Boyatzis, McKee, 2002, p. 39). The capabilities that â€Å"determine how we manage relationships† define the Social Competency category (Goleman, Boyatzis, McKee, 2002, p. 39) and include the social awareness and relationship management groups. In the context of thois study, researcher will use the GolemansModel as baseline or guideline to develop EI measurement for librarians. Yet a few competencies related to Malaysian public librarian nature will be considered (eg, spiritual, information literacy, Islamic values ect.) in the new model. Table 2.1 Five Periods of Development in Emotions and Intelligence in the Past Century Period The Emergence of The EI Concept 1900-1969 (Thorndike, 1920) Intelligence and Emotions as Separate Narrow Fields Psychometric approach to intelligence is developed and refined.  · Movement from Darwins theory for heritability and evolution of emotional responses to now being viewed as culturally determined.  · Social Intelligence (Thorndike, 1920) as the concept is introduced. 1970-1989 (David Wechsler, 1940) Non-intellective aspects of general intelligence The field of cognition and affect emerged to examine how emotions interacted with thoughts.  · Gardner (1983) theory of multiple intelligences described an intrapersonal and an interpersonal intelligence.  · Empirical work on social intelligence developed four components: social skills, empathy skills, pro-social attitudes, and emotionality (sensitivity). 1990-1993 (Gardner, 1983) Multiple intelligences; interpersonal intelligence-people smart; intrapersonal intelligence-self-smart Mayer and Salovey publish a series of articles on EI.  · First ability measure of EI published.  · Editor of the journal Intelligence argued for an existence of EI.  · Further developments for EI in the brain sciences. 1994-1997 (Goleman 1995) The Popularization and Broadening EQ  · Goleman (1995) publishes EI which becomes worldwide best-seller.  · Time magazine used the term â€Å"EQ† on its cover (Gibbs, 1995, October 2).  · Measures of EI using mixed model theories were published. 1998-Present (Peter Salovey Jack Mayer, 1990 EI  · Refinements to the concept of EI.  · New measures of EI introduced.  · Appearance of peer-reviewed articles on the subject. 2.2.4 2.2 Model of EI 2.2.1 Introduction There are many researchers that exist within the area of intelligences developed several models and theories to address EI (Gardner, 1990; Bar-On, 2008; Bernet, 1996; Brown, 1999; Brualdi, 1996; Burgess, Palmer, Stough Walls, 2001; Caruso, Mayer, Perkins Salovey, 1999; Cherniss, 2007; Ciarrochi, Chan, Caputi, Roberts, 2001; Dulewicz Higgs, 2000; Finegan, 1998; Gardner, 1995; Goleman, 1995; Goleman, 1998; Goleman, 2008; Langley, 2000; Mayer Geher, 2007; Mayer, Caruso Salovey, 2003; Mayer, Salovey Caruso, 2000; Mayer, 2001; Mayer, Salovey, Caruso, Sitarenios, 2001; Mayer, Perkins, Caruso Salovey, 2001; McDowelle Bell, 2000; Pfeiffer, 2001; Reiff, Hates, Bramel, 2001; Salovey Mayer, 1990; Salovey Sluyter, 1997; Weiss, 2000). The model of EI is comprised into two types; the ability model and mixed model. a) Ability model can be defined, EI as a set of mental abilities and constructs claims about the importance of emotional information and the potential uses of reasoning well with that information. Representatives of this model are Mayer and Salovey (1997) with four-branch model of EI. b) mixed model, whereas more commonly orienting and mixes mental abilities with personality attributes. Model from Goleman (2001), Cooper Sawaf (1997) and Bar-on (1997) are representatives for mixed model, but they expanded the meaning of EI by explicitly mixing the ability to understand and process emotion with other diverse parts of personality or skills, hence creating mixed approaches to EI. On the other word, the mixed model is defined as a combination of non cognitive abilities, personality traits and competencies (Goldsmith, 2008). 2.2.2 Models Assessing Emotional Intelligence 2.1.2 Bar-Ons Model of EI Bar-On reports that the EQ-i â€Å"was originally constructed as an experimental instrument designed to examine the concept of emotional and social functioning in the early 1980s (Bar-On, 2001, p.363). He created the term emotional quotient (EQ) to describe his mixed approach to the evaluation of an individuals general intelligence. He explained that the emotional quotient reflects our ability to operate successfully with other people and with our feelings (Bar-On, 2001). Bar-On developed the Bar-On EQ-i and instrument has been translated into twenty-two languages and normative data has been collected in more than fifteen countries (Bar-On, 2001). This EI inventory is the first scientifically developed and validated measure of EI that reflects ones ability to deal with environmental challenges and helps to predict ones success in life, including professional and personal pursuits (AbiSamra, 2000 and Bar-on, 2001). This model is separated into five different scales with fifteen subscales as detailed in Table 2.3. The first of these scales assess an individuals Intrapersonal EQ which consists of self-regard, emotional self-awareness, assertiveness, independence and self- actualization. The second scale assesses the individuals Interpersonal EQ consisting of empathy, social responsibility, and interpersonal relationships. Adaptability EQ is the third measure of Bar-Ons scale. This scale focuses on reality testing, flexibility and problem solving or how an individual handles emotion in the moment. The fourth scale assesses an individuals Stress Management EQ. This scale is comprised of stress tolerance and impulse control. The fifth and final scale of the EQ-i measures an individuals General Mood EQ, consisting of optimism and happiness. Bar-On reports that the research â€Å"findings obtained to date suggest that the EQ-i is measuring emotional and social intelligence†¦more specifically, the EQ-i is tapping the ability to be aware of, understand, control, and express emotions† (Bar-On, 2001, pp.372 -373). This ability model created by Bar-On is a selection of emotional, personal and social abilities that affect an individuals overall ability to manage the daily pressures and demands of life. Bar-On further reports that the ability is â€Å"apparently based on a core capacity to be aware of, understand, control and express emotions effectively† (p.374). Although Bar-Ons early research focused on the emotional quotient, it was not until the 1990s that EI truly began to receive recognition as a distinct form of intelligence (Geher, Warner Brown, 2001; Salovey Sluyter, 1997). The concept of an individuals EI (EI) was explained and expanded upon by Mayer and Salovey in 1990 (Mayer, Perkins, Caruso S alovey, 2001), and popularized by Daniel Goleman in 1995 (Goleman, 1995). 2.1.3 Golemans In 1995, Goleman elaborated on the original Salovey Mayer definition of EI to suggest five major EI domains as reported in Table 4. Table 4: Golemans original model of EI. Golemans Model of EI 1. Assessment of emotions 2. Regulation of emotions 3. Motivating and emotional self control 4. Understanding and recognizing emotions 5. Relationships and emotions The first of Golemans EI domains includes knowing ones emotions. This domain involves assessing and knowing what the emotion is as it occurs. The second domain of managing emotions is described as handling those emotions in an appropriate manner that builds on self-awareness. Motivating oneself or emotional self-control is the third domain. The fourth domain involves recognizing emotions in others. This domain involves empathy and Goleman considers it to be a â€Å"people skill† (Goleman, 1995, p.43). The last domain in Golemans original model consists of handling relationships. Goleman states that the ability of handling a relationship is in part the ability of managing emotions in others. Goleman contends that capacities for EI each have a distinctive involvement to form our lives. To some extent, these capacities build upon one another to formulate social skills. These abilities do not guarantee that people will develop or display emotional competencies. Goleman suggests th at individuals use competencies in many areas across many spectrums. Goleman has currently revised his original theory of EI as shown in Table 5. He now suggests that there are four domains rather than his original five domains (Goleman, 2001B). Table 5: Golemans current model of EI. Golemans Current Model of EI 1. Emotional Self Awareness 2. Emotional Self Management 3. Social Awareness 4. Relationship Management The first component or cluster of EI is that of Emotional Self- Awareness, or knowing what one feels. Recognizing ones own feelings, how they affect ones performance, and the realization of our own strengths as well as our weaknesses, is an important part of the self-awareness cluster. The second component of EI is Emotional Self-Management. This component reflects the ability to regulate stressful affects such as anxiety or anger, as well as how to deal with those situations. This component is reflected when an individual seems to keep their cool during a stressful situation. Self-management also reflects the abilities of an individual to be flexible and adaptable, looking at different perspectives of a situation. Social-Awareness, the third component, encompasses the competency of empathy. The Social-Awareness cluster is described as the cluster where an individual is aware of others emotions, concerns, and needs. Being aware of this information and internally processing it, allows the individual to read situations and act accordingly. The Relationship Management component makes up the fourth segment of Golemans current model. This component relates to how we interact with others in emotional situations. Goleman believes that if we cannot control our emotional outbursts and impulses, and we lack the necessary skill of empathy, there is less chance that we will be effective in our relationships. The Relationship Management cluster includes many of the skills necessary for being successful in social situations. Communication is also an essential element in the relationship management cluster (Goleman, 2001b). According to Goleman (2001a), EI at its most general rating, refers to the abilities to identify, reflect and adjust emotions in ourselves as well as to be aware of the emotions of others. Currently, Goleman relates the capacities for each domain in his EI model are: makes a unique contribution to job performance; strong communications; capacities build upon one another; does not guarantee people will develop or display the associated competencies; The general list is to some extent applicable to all jobs. Although Goleman explains that these capacities are hierarchical, meaning that one cannot fully pass on to the next phase or tier without accomplishing the previous stage with some degree of success. These capacities are not fixed and an individual can experience many levels at the same time. Goleman (1998) also states that EI determines our potential for learning the practical skills that underlie the four EI clusters. He maintains that emotional competence illustrates how much of that potential we have realized by learning and mastering skills and translating EI into on the job capabilities. According to Hall Torrance (1980), empathy and super-awareness to the needs of others is a trait that lies outside the realm of human abilities that can be measured. Hall Torrance report that many attempts have been made to measure these abilities, but with very little success. In their view, if empathy and awareness to others needs were accessed in a way that was based on reasoning, those qualities may reflect a measurable intellectual ability that would be associated with friendliness, compassion and happiness; all traits reported to be representative characteristics of emotionally intelligent individuals (Goleman, 1995; Pfeiffer, 2001). The information reported in 1980 by Hall and Torrance was prescient in that these traits are currently being measured as traits of EI. The traits of flexibility and freedom of thoughts as well as a high rating of motivation, either intrinsic or extrinsic, the ability to express emotion, the ability to manage stress, self confidence, and the ability to cope with tension are also valued characteristics of EI (Caruso, Mayer, Perkins, Salovey, 1999; Cherniss, 1998; Goleman, 1995, 1997; Levinson, 1997; Olszewski-Kubilius, 2000; Pfeiffer, 2001; Reiff, Hates Bramel, 2001). Currently, Goleman emphasizes that EI at its most general rating, refers to the abilities to identify, reflect and adjust emotions in ourselves as well as to be aware of the emotions of others (Cherniss Goleman, 2001; Goleman, 2001A). According to Goleman, EI refers to the ability to recognize our own feelings and those of others, to motivate ourselves, and to manage emotions in ourselves and in our relationships. (Clawson 1999; Dulewicz Higgs 2000; Goleman 1998; Burgess, Palmer, Stough Walls 2001). In another cognitive research study conducted by Sternberg, Wagner, Williams, and Horvath (cited in McDowelle Bell, 1998) it is reported that these differences in IQ and success at work accounted for between 4% and 25% variance of job performance. This leads us to the conclusion that a major part of what enhances our job performance is affected by non-IQ factors. McDowelle Bell (1998) state â€Å"emotionality and rationality complement each other in the work world. They can be viewe d as inseparable parts of the life of the organization. 2.1.4 Salovey and Mayers Since the origination of the theory of EI in 1990, Mayer and Salovey have worked diligently to refine their academic and scientific model of EI model. Their current model, developed in 1997, is decidedly cognitive in focus and revolves around four tiers or ratings that are not genetically fixed or set in early childhood. As people grow and develop, they also seem to develop a greater sense of EI suggesting that these traits of EI can be developed over time (Epstein, 1999; Ford-Martin, 2001; Goleman, 2001A; Weiss, 2000). According to Mayer, Perkins, Caruso Salovey (2001), the emotionally intelligent person is skilled in four distinct branches: identifying, using, understanding, and regulating emotions. These four distinct areas are outlined in Mayer and Saloveys current model. The newest model begins with the idea that emotions contain information about relationships (Mayer, Salovey, Caruso, and Sitarenios (2001). (See Table 6). The recognition, the evaluation and the communication of emotions initiate the first branch of Mayer and Saloveys model. The second branch involves using emotions to think constructively such as utilizing those emotions to make judgments, the consideration of an alternative viewpoint, and an appreciation that a change in emotional state and point of view can promote various types of solutions to problems. The third branch combines the abilities of classifying and differentiating between emotions to help integrate different feelings. This rating also works toward helping us t o form rules about the feelings we experience. The fourth and final branch involves the ability to take the emotions we experience and use them in support of a social goal (Finegan, 1998; Cherniss Goleman, 2001). The four hierarchical developmental branches established by Mayer and Salovey in 1997, although different from Golemans ratings of EI, seem to incorporate several fundamental principles of personal development theory. These developmental stages discussed by Salovey and Mayer are reported to be hierarchical. The Mayer and Salovey model frames the complexity of emotional skills that develop from the first tier and continue through the fourth, whereas Golemans competencies, in contrast, can be viewed along a continuum of mastery. Caruso, Mayer, Perkins, Salovey (2001), expected individuals need to be able to identify their emotions as well as the emotions of others. Using those emotions, understanding those emotions, and having the ability to manage those emotions is also required to be successful. Caruso et al. (2001) relate that when an individual works in an administrative or work environment that requires the cooperation and collaboration, the skills of EI become even more essential. Caruso et al. (2001) also report that EI can assist in facilitating this work in helping to generate new and creative ideas and solutions to problems. At times, some of the problems that are challenging an individual can be very complex, while at other times the problem-solving task may be effortless. According to Caruso et al. (2001), problem solving requires creative thought to generate ideal solutions. Caruso et al. (2001) deduce that EI can help the individual to think creatively in many ways such as, viewing the problem from multiple perspectives, brainstorming or generating new and creative ideas, being inventive, generating original ideas and solutions to the problem, and defining and recognizing new solutions. Table 2.3: Characteristics of Selected EI Model Bar-On (1980) Mixed Model Goleman (2005) Performance Model Mayer, Caruso and Salovey (1990) Ability Model (1) Awareness, Intrapersonal Assertiveness, EQ Self-Regard,

The Assessed Causes Of The First World War :: history

The Assessed Causes Of The First World War Long Term Causes And Arguments: In 1838, a agreement was formed to protect Belgium if attacked or invaded. Briton along with other major European powers signed this therefore dragging themselves into the First World War when Germany invaded Belgium to fight France. In 1848, Austria-Hungary under Franz Josef lost a war against France, beginning a long rivalry between the two countries. In 1860, Italy was founded which agravated Austria-Hungary as parts of ithe land had originally been owned by them. In 186, Austria-Hungary under Franz Josef lost to Prussia creating tention between Austria-Hungary and yet more countries within Europe. In 1870, the Franco-Prussian War happened. France, led by Napoleon III, lost to Wilhelm I. This loss meant Alsace-Lorraine was joined on to Germany Empire. France would never forget this and was keen for revenge. In 1875, France set up a War college â€Å"Ecole Superieure de Guerre† which implied that they were building up a strong army to attack Germany again. In 1879, the Dual Allience was formed between Germany and Austria-Hungary, although Wilhem I was afraid that it might damage relations with Russia, which had always supported Prussia. In 1881, The Emperors League was formed creating more allies for Germany and Austria-Hungary. In 1882, Italy who had been waiting to see which was the stronger empire between the two sides finally joined Germany and formed the Triple allience. In 1888, Wilhelm I died and Wilhelm II was appointed Emperior of Germany. In 1890, Germany refused to renew the Russian Reinsurance Treaty and lets Russia go off to find new allies. In 1891, Russia and France agreed to protect each other if either country was attacked(the Franco-Russian Alliance). This created more strain on Germany as the surrounding empires teamed up. In 1904, Briton became an unoffical member of the Franco-Russian allience, building up to fight Germany if attacked. In 1912, Briton and France agreed to join each others battles if it was an unprovoked attack. The Pig War: The Pig war was an attempt by Austria-Hungary to stop the Pan-Serb movement and eventually Serbia, but all that came from this was a stronger Serbia and encouragement to get revenge somehow. Serbia’s main trade was in live-stock and so in 1906 Austria-Hungary stopped the import of all Serbia’s livestock. The Pig war had begun and continued for five years with unexpected results from both Serbia and Austria-Hungary.

Abortion Cases of the 19th Century :: Essays Papers

Abortion Cases of the 19th Century Although abortions were very dangerous, as well as socially unacceptable during the nineteenth century, women were not altogether unable to obtain abortions and many suffered accusations of infanticide. Here I will present a few of the more famous cases from the period, demonstrating the occurrence of abortion, the availability of providers, and the consequences faced by those who necessitated the procedure. One case that dominated the pages of The Revolution, the paper owned by Susan B. Anthony and edited by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Parker Pillsbury, was the sentencing of a young girl to hang for the death of her child. While not a case of abortion, the death was termed an infanticide and drew strong opinions from the public as well as both the editors. The unfortunate Hester Vaughan, an English girl living in Philadelphia, was discovered in a tiny tenement room devoid of furniture February 8, 1868, forty-eight hours after giving birth. Alone during labor, without food or heat, she was found frail and feverish with her baby dead beside her. She was immediately brought to the police and imprisoned, under the assumption that she had killed her child. For thirty dollars, she acquired the services of a lawyer by the name of Goforth and underwent a brief trial. Having never actually confessed to committing the crime, she was nonetheless sentenced to death by County Judge Ludlow, and placed in Moyamensing Prison until her execution. Once news of the case reached the public, the women of The Revolution unleashed their sympathies in article after article denouncing the indictment. In an August 6, 1868 editorial it was written: â€Å" If that poor child of sorrow is hung, it will be deliberate, downright murder. Her death will be far more horrible infanticide than was the killing of her child. She is the child of our society and civilization, begotten and born of it, seduced by it, by the judge who pronounced her sentence, by the bar and jury, by the legislature that enacted the law (in which because a woman, she had no vote or voice), by the church and the pulpit that sanctify the law and deeds, of all these will her blood, yea, and her virtue too, be required! All these were the joint seducer, and now see if by hanging her, they will also become her murderer.† However, Hester never had to face the day of her execution and instead spent nearly two years in jail.

Key Qualities of a Successful Entrepreneur Essay

Being an entrepreneur is about more than just starting a business or two, it is about having attitude and the drive to succeed in business. All successful Entrepreneurs have a similar way of thinking and posses several key personal qualities that make them so successful in business. Successful entrepreneurs like the ambitious Richard Branson have an inner drive to succeed and grow their business, rather than having a Harvard Business degree or technical knowledge in a particular field.All successful entrepreneurs have the following qualities:Inner Drive to SucceedEntrepreneurs are driven to succeed and expand their business. They see the bigger picture and are often very ambitious. Entrepreneurs set massive goals for themselves and stay committed to achieving them regardless of the obstacles that get in the way. Strong Belief in themselvesSuccessful entrepreneurs have a healthy opinion of themselves and often have a strong and assertive personality. They are focused and determined to achieve their goals and believe completely in their ability to achieve them. Their self optimism can often been seen by others as flamboyance or arrogance but entrepreneurs are just too focused to spend too much time thinking about un-constructive criticism. Search for New Ideas and InnovationAll entrepreneurs have a passionate desire to do things better and to improve their products or service. They are constantly looking for ways to improve. They‘re creative, innovative and resourceful.Openness to ChangeIf something is not working for them they simply change. Entrepreneurs know the importance of keeping on top of their industry and the only way to being number one is to evolve and change with the times. They‘re up to date with the latest technology or service techniques and are always ready to change if they see a new opportunity arise.www.woopidoo.comCompetitive by NatureSuccessful entrepreneurs thrive on competition. The only way to reach their goals and live up to their self imposed high standards is to compete with other successful businesses. Highly Motivated and EnergeticEntrepreneurs are always on the move, full of energy and highly motivated. They are driven to succeed and have an abundance of self motivation. The high standards and ambition of many entrepreneurs demand that they have to be motivated!Accepting of Constructive Criticism and RejectionInnovative entrepreneurs are often at the forefront of their industry so they hear the words †it can‘t be done† quite a bit. They readjust their path if the criticism is constructive and useful to their overall plan, otherwise they will simply disregard the comments as pessimism. Also, the best entrepreneurs know that rejection and obstacles are a part of any leading business and they deal with them appropriately.True entrepreneurs are resourceful, passionate and driven to succeed and improve. They‘re pioneers and are comfortable fighting on the frontline The great ones are ready to be laughed at and criticized in the beginning because they can see their path ahead and are too busy working towards their dream.